Water-fuelled car
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A water-fuelled car is an automobile that is claimed to use water as its fuel or produces fuel from water onboard, with no other energy input. Water-fuelled cars have been mentioned in newspapers, popular science magazines, local news coverage, and the internet (YouTube); at least some of the claims were found to be tied to investment frauds.[1][2] This article focuses on vehicles which purport to extract their energy directly from water, a process which would violate the first and/or second law of thermodynamics.[3][4][5][6]
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What water-fuelled cars are not
A water-fueled car is not any of the following:
- The steam engine: A steam engine uses water to transmit energy from the fire or other heat source to the pistons or turbine that do the work of turning the engine.
- The Crower six stroke, which adds two extra strokes to the customary internal combustion engine four stroke Otto cycle, to produce and exhaust steam from water, while venting heat from the engine.
- Water injection which is a method for cooling the combustion chambers of engines by adding water to the incoming fuel-air mixture, allowing for greater compression ratios and reduced engine knocking (detonation).
- The hydrogen car, although it often incorporates some of the same elements. To fuel a hydrogen car from water, energy from a power plant is used to generate hydrogen by electrolysis. The resulting hydrogen is then either burned in the car's engine or merged with oxygen to create water via a fuel cell. The car ultimately receives its energy from the power plant, with the hydrogen acting as an energy carrier.
- Hydrogen fuel enhancement systems.
Chemical energy content of water
- See also: Enthalpy of combustion
Spontaneous chemical reactions do not create energy; they release it by converting unstable bonds into more stable bonds and/or by increasing entropy. The burning of conventional fuels such as petrol (gasoline), wood, and coal converts the fuel into substances with less energy, mostly water and carbon dioxide. In the combustion of fossil fuels water is a waste product, and the overall reaction can be represented with the following chemical equation:
Water is such an abundant chemical compound in part because it has very stable bonds that resist most reactions. For water to participate in a reaction that releases energy, high energy compounds must be added. For example, it is possible to generate the combustible fuel acetylene by adding calcium carbide to water. However, the calcium carbide, a high energy material, is the 'fuel,' not water. Under conditions common on Earth, chemical energy cannot be extracted from water alone.[5][4] (It is theoretically possible to extract nuclear energy from water by fusion, but fusion power plants of any scale remain impractical, and no allegedly water-fuelled cars are claimed to be powered by fusion.)
Electrolysis
- See also: Electrolysis of water
Many alleged water-fuelled cars obtain hydrogen or a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen (sometimes called "oxyhydrogen", "HHO", or "Brown's Gas") by the electrolysis of water, a process that must be powered electrically. The hydrogen or oxyhydrogen is then burned, supposedly powering the car and also providing the energy to electrolyse more water. The overall process can be represented by the following chemical equations:
- 2H2O → 2H2 + O2 [Electrolysis step]
- 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O [Combustion step]
Since the combustion step is the exact reverse of the electrolysis step, the energy released in combustion exactly equals the energy consumed in the electrolysis step, and—even assuming 100% efficiency—there would be no energy left over to power the car. In other words, such systems start and end in the same thermodynamic state, and are therefore perpetual motion machines, violating the first law of thermodynamics. And under actual conditions in which hydrogen is burned, efficiency is limited by the second law of thermodynamics and is likely to be around 20%.[7][8] More energy is therefore required to drive the electrolysis cell than can be extracted from burning the resulting hydrogen-oxygen mixture.
Claims of functioning water-fuelled cars
Stanley Meyer's water fuel cell
Stanley Meyer claimed that he ran a dune buggy on water instead of petrol. He replaced the spark plugs with "injectors" to spray a fine mist of water into the engine cylinders, which he claimed were subjected to an electrical resonance. The "fuel cell" would split the water mist into hydrogen and oxygen gas, which would then be combusted back into water vapour in a conventional internal combustion engine to produce net energy. Meyer's claims were never independently verified, and in 1996 he was found guilty of fraud in an Ohio court.[1] He died of an aneurysm in 1998, and conspiracy theories persist claiming that he was poisoned.[10]
Garrett electrolytic carburetor
Charles H. Garrett allegedly demonstrated a water-fuelled car "for several minutes", which was reported on September 8, 1935 in The Dallas Morning News.[11] The car generated hydrogen by electrolysis as can be seen by examining Garrett's patent, issued that same year.[12] This patent includes drawings which show a carburetor similar to an ordinary float-type carburetor but with electrolysis plates in the lower portion, and where the float is used to maintain the level of the water. Garrett's patent fails to identify a new source of energy.
Aquygen
The firm Hydrogen Technology Applications has also patented an electrolyser design[13] and has trademarked the term "Aquygen" to refer to the hydrogen oxygen gas mixture produced by the device.[14][15][16] Originally developed as an alternative to oxyacetylene welding, the company also claims to be able to run a vehicle exclusively on "Aquygen" and invoke an unproven state of matter called "magnegases" and a discredited theory about magnecules to explain their results.[17][18] Company founder Dennis Klein claims to be in negotiations with a major US auto manufacturer and that the US government wants to produce Hummers that use his technology.[19][20]
Genepax Water Energy System
In June 2008, Japanese company Genepax unveiled a car which it claims runs on only water and air,[21] and many news outlets dubbed the vehicle a "water-fuel car".[22] The company says it "cannot [reveal] the core part of this invention,” yet,[23] but it has disclosed that the system uses an onboard energy generator (a "membrane electrode assembly") to extract the hydrogen using a "mechanism which is similar to the method in which hydrogen is produced by a reaction of metal hydride and water".[24] The hydrogen is then used to generate energy to run the car. This has led to speculation that the metal hydride is consumed in the process and is the ultimate source of the car's energy, making the car a hydride-fuelled "hydrogen on demand" vehicle, rather than water-fuelled as claimed.[25][26][27] On the company's website the energy source is explained only with the words "Chemical reaction".[28] The science and technology magazine Popular Mechanics has described Genepax's claims as "Rubbish."[29]
Thushara Priyamal Edirisinghe
Also in 2008, Sri Lankan news sources reported that Thushara Priyamal Edirisinghe claimed to drive a water-fuelled a car about 300 kilometers[30] on three liters of water.[31][32][33][34] Like other alleged water-fuelled cars described above, energy for the car is supposedly produced by splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using electrolysis, and then burning the gases in the engine. Thushara showed the technology to Prime Minister Ratnasiri Wickramanayaka, who extended the Government’s full support to his efforts to introduce the water-powered car to the Sri Lankan market.[31]
Hydrogen as a supplement
In addition to claims of cars that run exclusively on water, there have also been claims that burning hydrogen or oxyhydrogen in addition to petrol or diesel fuel increases mileage. Around 1970, Yull Brown developed technology which allegedly allows cars to burn fuel more efficiently while improving emissions. In Brown's design, a hydrogen oxygen mixture (so-called "Brown's Gas") is generated by the electrolysis of water, and then fed into the engine through the air intake system. Whether the system actually improves emissions or fuel efficiency is debated.[35] Similarly, Hydrogen Technology Applications claims to be able increase fuel efficiency by bubbling "Aquyen" into the fuel tank.
A number of websites exist promoting the use of oxyhydrogen (often called "HHO"), selling plans for do-it-yourself electrolysers or entire kits with the promise of large improvements in fuel efficiency. According to a spokesman for the American Automobile Association, "All of these devices look like they could probably work for you, but let me tell you they don't."[36]
Gasoline pill and related additives
Related to the water-fuelled car hoax are claims that additives, often a pill, convert the water into usable fuel, similar to a carbide lamp, in which a high-energy additive produces the combustible fuel. This "gasoline pill" has been allegedly demonstrated on a full-sized vehicle, as reported in 1980 in Mother Earth News. Once again, water itself cannot contribute any energy to the process, the additive or the pill is the fuel.
Hydrogen on demand technologies
A hydrogen on demand vehicle uses some kind of chemical reaction to produce hydrogen from water. The hydrogen is then burned in an internal combustion engine or used in a fuel cell to generate electricity which powers the vehicle. While these may seem at first sight to be 'water-fuelled cars', they actually take their energy from the chemical that reacts with water, and vehicles of this type are not precluded by the laws of nature. Aluminium, magnesium, and sodium borohydride are substances that react with water to generate hydrogen, and all have been used in hydrogen on demand prototypes. Eventually, the chemical runs out and has to be replenished.[37][38][39] In all cases the energy required to produce such compounds exceeds the energy obtained from their reaction with water.[40]
One example of a hydrogen on demand device, created by scientists from the University of Minnesota and the Weizmann Institute of Science, uses boron to generate hydrogen from water. An article in New Scientist in July 2006 described the power source under the headline "A fuel tank full of water,"[40] and they quote Abu-Hamed as saying:
| “ | The aim is to produce the hydrogen on-board at a rate matching the demand of the car engine. We want to use the boron to save transporting and storing the hydrogen. | ” |
A vehicle powered by the device would take on water and boron instead of petrol, and generate boron trioxide. The chemical reactions describing the energy generation are:
The balanced chemical equation representing the overall process (hydrogen generation and combustion) is:
As shown above, boron trioxide is the only net byproduct, and it could be removed from the car and turned back into boron and reused. Electricity input is required to complete this process which Al-Hamed suggests could come from solar panels. [40]
References
- ^ a b Edwards, Tony (1996-12-01). "End of road for car that ran on Water", The Sunday Times, Times Newspapers Limited, p. Features 12. Retrieved on 2007-05-16.
- ^ State of New Jersey Department of Law and Public Safety press release, November 9, 2006
- ^ "The Truth About Water-Powered Cars: Mechanic's Diary". Popular Mechanics (2008-07-03). Retrieved on 2008-07-21.
- ^ a b Professor doubts water car claims - A leading alternative fuels expert throws water on Japanese company claims that it's developed the world's first car powered by just water. Professor Theodosios Korakianitis at Queen Mary University of London says water by itself would not be enough to get your car going. [1]
- ^ a b Ball, Philip (September 14, 2007). "Burning water and other myths". Nature News. Retrieved on 2007-09-14.
- ^ http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/facts-research/research-technology/report/Guidelines-H2-Fuel-in-CMVs-Nov2007.pdf
- ^ Physics In an Automotive Engine
- ^ Improving IC Engine Efficiency
- ^ US patent 4936961 Method for the production of a fuel gas - Stanley A. Meyer
- ^ NatureNews, "Burning water and other myths", September 14, 1997
- ^ http://keelynet.com/energy/garrett.htm
- ^ a b US patent 2006676 Electrolytic carburetor - Charles H. Garrett
- ^ US6,689,259 (2004-02-10) Dennis Klein Mixed gas generator
- ^ Business Wire Hydrogen Technology Applications and UTEK Corporation Announce Strategic Alliance Agreement (April 2002)
- ^ EVWORLD FEATURE: Electric Cars and the Goldilocks Planet: Global Warming | Carbon Dioxide | Cold Fusion
- ^ Knight-Ridder/Tribune Business News: Clearwater man puts technology to work Tampa Tribune (Tampa, Florida) (November 2005)
- ^ J. M. Calo (November 3, 2006). "Comments on “A new gaseous and combustible form of water,” by R.M. Santilli (Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2006: 31(9), 1113–1128)". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (32): p. 1309–1312.doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2006.11.004
- ^ Cars run on water: Miracle or scam?
- ^ Goodbye Big Oil - Vive
- ^ FOX News 13: Clearwater Florida man makes HHO gas to run a welder and a car on pure water Craig Patrick looks at Aquygen™ as an industrial gas replacement and an evolutionary step for hybrid cars.(2005)
- ^ "New Fuel Cell System 'Generates Electricity with Only Water, Air'", Nikkei Business Publications,Inc. (2008-06-13). Retrieved on 2008-06-13.
- ^ "Water-fuel car unveiled in Japan", Reuters (2008-06-13). Retrieved on 2008-06-18.
- ^ Ghelfi, Carli (June 18, 2008). "Water-fueled car: too good to be true?", Cleantech.com. Retrieved on 2008-06-22.
- ^ "Japanese company creates eco-friendly car that uses water as fuel!", India Times (2008-06-17). Retrieved on 2008-06-18.
- ^ http://www.treehugger.com/files/2008/06/genepax-water-powered-car-japan-debunking.php
- ^ "Japanese Company Says Laws of Physics Don't Apply — to Cars". Slashdot (2008-06-14). Retrieved on 2008-06-14.
- ^ Rapier, Robert (18 June 2008). "How to Run a Car on Water: The Truth About Genepax's Hydrogen Car", The Intelligence Daily. Retrieved on 2008-06-22.
- ^ http://genepax.co.jp/en/mechanism/system.html Power generation mechanism of WES
- ^ Allen, Mike (July 3, 2008). "The Truth About Water-Powered Cars: Mechanic's Diary". Retrieved on 2008-07-10.
- ^ The news sources cited below report that the trip was from Christ King College, Pannipitiya, Thushara, to Anuradhapura and back.
- ^ a b Dailynews Sri Lanka: Groundbreaking invention from Athurugiriya youth
- ^ Business intelligence Middle east:The water-powered car race heats up still further
- ^ Dailynews Sri Lanka: In search of creativity
- ^ Sinhalaya News Agency: Walter Jayawardhana:Sri Lankan inventor says he has made the car that runs on water
- ^ newsreview: Hydrogen generators get a test drive in the search for fuel economy and lower emissions By Scott D.F. Reeves
- ^ Spring, Tom (July 28, 2008). "Gas Crisis Fuels Dubious Online Offers", PC World. Retrieved on 2008-08-23.
- ^ ""Hydrogen On Demand"". Retrieved on 2008-08-13.
- ^ ""Millennium Cell Provides Ford With Prototype Hydrogen On Demand Fuel System for Evaluation"". Retrieved on 2008-08-13.
- ^ ""Engineuity presents a breakthrough in alternative fuel"". Retrieved on 2008-08-13.
- ^ a b c Adam, David (2006-07-29). "A fuel tank full of water". New Scientist: p. 35. Retrieved on 2007-03-01. "Forget cars fuelled by alcohol and vegetable oil. Before long, you might be able to run your car with nothing more than water in its fuel tank. It would be the ultimate zero-emissions vehicle."
Hydrogen vehicle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen as its on-board fuel for motive power. The term may refer to a personal transportation vehicle, such as an automobile, or any other vehicle that uses hydrogen in a similar fashion, such as an aircraft. The power plants of such vehicles convert the chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy (torque) in one of two methods: combustion, or electrochemical conversion in a fuel-cell:
- In combustion, the hydrogen is burned in engines in fundamentally the same method as traditional gasoline (petrol) cars.
- In fuel-cell conversion, the hydrogen is reacted with oxygen to produce water and electricity, the latter of which is used to power an electric traction motor.
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Vehicles
Buses, trains, PHB bicycle, cargo bikes, golf carts, motorcycles, wheelchairs, ships, airplanes, submarines, high-speed cars, and rockets already can run on hydrogen, in various forms and sometimes at great expense. NASA uses hydrogen to launch Space Shuttles into space. There is even a working toy model car that runs on solar power, using a reversible fuel cell to store energy in the form of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can then convert the fuel back into water to release the solar energy.[1]
The current land speed record for a hydrogen powered vehicle is 333.38 km/h (207.2 mph) set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car at Bonneville Salt Flats in Wendover, Utah on August 2007. [2]
Automobiles
- For more details on this topic, see List of fuel cell vehicles.
Many companies are currently researching the feasibility of building hydrogen cars and most of the automobile manufacturers have begun developing hydrogen cars, see list of fuel cell vehicles. Most of these vehicles are currently only available in demonstration models or in a lease construction in limited numbers and are not yet ready for general public use. The recorded number of hydrogen-powered public vehicles in the United States was 200 as of April 2007, mostly in California.[3] Funding has come from both private and government sources. In May 2008, Wired News reported that "experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global warming, and we can't afford to wait that long. In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources from more immediate solutions."[4]
Buses
Fuel cell buses (as opposed to hydrogen fueled buses) are being trialed by several manufacturers in different locations. The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global fuel cell bus testing collaboration.
Hydrogen was first stored in roof mounted tanks, although models are now incorporating inboard tanks. Some double deck models uses between floor tanks.
Bicycles
Pearl Hydrogen Power Sources of Shanghai, China, unveiled a hydrogen bicycle at the 9th China International Exhibition on Gas Technology, Equipment and Applications in 2007.
Motorcycles
ENV is developing electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including the Crosscage and Biplane.
Airplanes
- For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen planes.
Companies such as Boeing and Smartfish are pursuing hydrogen as fuel for airplanes. Unmanned hydrogen planes have been tested, and in February 2008 Boeing tested a manned flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. The Times reported that "Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large passenger jets but could be used as backup or auxiliary power units onboard."[5]
Rockets
Rockets employ hydrogen because hydrogen gives the highest exhaust velocity as well as giving a lower net weight of propellant than other fuels. It particularly shines on upper stages, although has been used on lower stages as well, although usually in conjunction with a dense fuel booster.
The main disadvantage of hydrogen in this application is the low density and deeply cryogenic nature, requiring insulation- this makes the hydrogen tanks relatively heavy, which greatly offsets much of the otherwise overwhelming advantages for this application.
Hydrogen internal combustion
Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars. The hydrogen internal combustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline internal combustion engine car. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline engines do.
Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed in 1807 the first internal combustion engine on hydrogen[6] Paul Dieges patented In 1970 a modification to internal combustion engines which allowed a gasoline powered engine to run on hydrogen US patent 3844262.
Mazda has developed Wankel engines that burn hydrogen. However the major car companies such as DaimlerChrysler and General Motors are investing in the more efficient hydrogen fuel cells instead.[7]
Hydrogen fuel cell
- For more details on this topic, see Fuel cell.
While fuel cells themselves are potentially highly energy efficient, and working prototypes were made by Roger E. Billings in the 1960s, at least four technical obstacles and other political considerations exist regarding the development and use of a fuel cell-powered hydrogen car.
Fuel cell cost
Currently, hydrogen fuel cells are costly to produce and are fragile. Engineers are studying how to produce inexpensive fuel cells that are robust enough to survive the bumps and vibrations that all automobiles experience. Also, many designs require rare substances such as platinum as a catalyst in order to work properly. Such a catalyst can also become contaminated by impurities in the hydrogen supply. In the past few years, however, a nickel-tin catalyst has been under development which may lower the cost of cells.[8]
Fuel cells are generally priced in USD/kW, and data is scarce regarding costs. Ballard Power Systems is virtually alone in publishing such data. Their 2005 figure was $73 USD/kW (based on high volume manufacturing estimates), which they said was on track to achieve the U.S. DoE's 2010 goal of $30 USD/kW. This would achieve closer parity with internal combustion engines for automotive applications, allowing a 100 kW fuel cell to be produced for $3000. 100 kW is about 134 hp.[9]
Freezing conditions
Temperatures below freezing 32F or 0 C are a major concern with fuel cells operations. Operational Fuel cells have an internal vaporous water environment that could solidify if the fuel cell and contents are not kept above 0 Celsius ( 32 F). Most fuel cell designs are not as yet robust enough to survive in below freezing environments. Frozen solid, especially before start up, they would not be able to begin working. Once running though, heat is a byproduct of the fuel cell process, which would keep the fuel cell at an adequate operational temperature to function correctly. This makes startup of the fuel cell a major concern in cold weather operation. Places such as Canada or Alaska where temperatures can reach -40C ( -40F) at startup would not be able to use early model fuel cells. Ballard announced that it has already hit the U.S. DoE's 2010 target for cold weather starting which was 50% power achieved in 30 seconds at -20 °C.[10] Possibly the incorporation of a preheat device would help to lessen such problems if the energy drain was not too great on the vehicle's batteries.
Just as early gasoline cars struggled with the carburetion problems before becoming universally practical, so fuel cells have to work out startup and long term reliability problems. Then they will be solid enough to hold up to the extreme hardships of cold weather operation.
Service life
Although service life is coupled to cost, fuel cells have to be compared to existing machines with a service life in excess of 5000 hours[11] for stationary and light-duty. Marine PEM fuel cells reached the target in 2004[12] Research is going on especially for heavy duty like in the bus trials which are targeted up to a service life of 30,000 hours.
Hydrogen production
- For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen production.
The molecular hydrogen needed as an on-board fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be obtained through many thermochemical methods utilizing natural gas, coal (by a process known as coal gasification), liquefied petroleum gas, biomass (biomass gasification), by a process called thermolysis, or as a microbial waste product called biohydrogen or Biological hydrogen production. Hydrogen can also be produced from water by electrolysis or by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or aluminum [13] . Current technologies for manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totaling between 25 and 50 percent of the higher heating value of the hydrogen fuel, to produce, compress or liquefy, and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck.[14] Electrolysis, currently the most inefficient method of producing hydrogen, uses 65 percent to 112 percent of the higher heating value on a well-to-tank basis.[15] Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of greenhouse gases, a consequence that would also proceed from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen. Studies comparing the environmental consequences of hydrogen production and use in fuel cell vehicles to the refining of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile engines find a net reduction of ozone and greenhouse gases in favor of hydrogen.[16] Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions or, in the case of biomass, would create near-zero net emissions assuming new biomass is grown in place of that converted to hydrogen. The scale of renewable energy use today is insufficient and would need to be greatly increased to meet demand for widespread use in transportation.[17] However, in a few countries, hydrogen is being produced using renewable sources. For example, Iceland is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen,[18] and Denmark is using wind.[19]
In addition to the inherent losses of energy in the conversion of feed stock to produce hydrogen which makes hydrogen less advantageous as an energy carrier, there are economic and energy penalties associated with packaging, distribution, storage and transfer of hydrogen.[20]
Hydrogen storage
- For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen storage.
Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions, equal to about one-third that of methane. Even when the fuel is stored as liquid hydrogen in a cryogenic tank or in a compressed hydrogen storage tank, the volumetric energy density (megajoules per liter) is small relative to that of gasoline. Hydrogen has a three times higher energy density by weight compared to gasoline (143 MJ/kg versus 46.9 MJ/kg). Because of the energy required to compress or liquefy the hydrogen gas, the supply chain for hydrogen has lower well-to-wheel efficiency but a higher tank-to-wheel compared to gasoline IC's.[20] Some research has been done into using special crystalline materials to store hydrogen at greater densities and at lower pressures.
Hydrogen infrastructure
- For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen infrastructure.
- For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen highway.
The hydrogen infrastructure consists mainly of industrial hydrogen pipeline transport and hydrogen-equipped filling stations like those found on a hydrogen highway. Hydrogen stations which are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline get supply via hydrogen tanks, compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production.
Hydrogen use would require the alteration of industry and transport on a scale never seen before in history. For example, according to GM, 70% of the U.S. population lives near a hydrogen-generating facility but has just about no access to hydrogen, despite its wide availability for commercial use.[21] The distribution of hydrogen fuel for vehicles in the U.S. would require new hydrogen stations costing, by some estimates, 20 billion dollars.[22] and 4.6 billion in the EU.[23] Other estimates place the cost as high as half trillion U.S. dollars in the United States alone.[24]
Hydrogen codes and standards
Hydrogen codes and standards are codes and standards (RCS) for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
Additional to the codes and standards for hydrogen vehicles, there are codes and standards for hydrogen safety, for the safe handling of hydrogen and the storage of hydrogen.
Codes and standards have repeatedly been identified as a major institutional barrier to deploying hydrogen technologies and developing a hydrogen economy. To enable the commercialization of hydrogen in consumer products, new model building codes and equipment and other technical standards are developed and recognized by federal, state, and local governments.[25]
Hydrogen economy
- For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen economy.
Hydrogen does not come as a pre-existing source of energy like fossil fuels, but rather as a carrier, much like a battery. It can be made from both renewable and non-renewable energy sources. The common internal combustion engine, usually fueled with gasoline (petrol) or diesel liquids, can be converted to run on gaseous hydrogen. However, the more energy efficient use of hydrogen involves the use of fuel cells and electric motors. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen inside the fuel cells, which produces electricity to power the motors. A primary area of research is hydrogen storage, to try to increase the range of hydrogen vehicles, while reducing the weight, energy consumption, and complexity of the storage systems. Two primary methods of storage are metal hydrides and compression.
A potential advantage of hydrogen is that it could be produced and consumed continuously, using solar, water, wind and nuclear power for electrolysis. Currently, however, hydrogen vehicles utilizing hydrogen produce more pollution than vehicles consuming gasoline, diesel, or methane in a modern internal combustion engine, and far more than plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.[20][26] This is because, although hydrogen fuel cells generate no CO2, production of the hydrogen creates additional emissions.[27] While methods of hydrogen production that do not use fossil fuel would be more sustainable,[28] currently such production is not economically feasible, and diversion of renewable energy (which represents only 2% of energy generated) to the production of hydrogen for transportation applications is inadvisable.[26]
The production of hydrogen with electricity makes it an energy carrier, and not an energy source, so the energy the car uses would ultimately need to be provided by a conventional power plant or a home hydrogen station. A suggested benefit of large-scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse gases and ozone precursors.[16] Further, the conversion of fossil fuels would be moved from the vehicle, as in today's automobiles, to centralized power plants in which the byproducts of combustion or gasification may be better controlled than at the tailpipe.
Criticism
However, there are both technical and economic challenges to implementing wide-scale use of hydrogen vehicles, as well as less expensive alternatives. The time frame in which challenges may be overcome is likely to be at least several decades, and hydrogen vehicles may never become broadly available.[26][29] For mobile applications, hydrogen has been called "one of the least efficient, most expensive ways to reduce greenhouse gases".[30]
Most of today's hydrogen is produced using fossil energy resources.[31] While some advocate hydrogen produced from non-fossil resources, there could be public resistance or technological barriers to the implementation of such methods. For example, the United States Department of Energy currently supports research and development aimed at producing hydrogen utilizing heat from generation IV reactors. Such nuclear power plants could be configured to cogenerate hydrogen and electricity. Hydrogen produced in this fashion would still incur the costs associated with transportation and compression or liquefaction assuming direct (molecular) hydrogen is the on-board fuel. Recently, alternative methods of creating hydrogen directly from sunlight and water through a metallic catalyst have been announced. This may eventually provide an economical, direct conversion of solar energy into hydrogen a very clean solution for hydrogen production.[32]
Some in Washington advocate schemes[33] other than hydrogen vehicles to replace the petroleum-based internal combustion engine vehicles. Plug-in hybrids, for example, would augment today's hybrid gasoline-electric vehicles with greater battery capacity to enable increased use of the vehicle's electric traction motor and reduced reliance on the combustion engine. The batteries would be charged via the electric grid when the vehicle is parked. Electric power transmission is about 93 percent efficient [34] and the infrastructure is already in place[2]. Tackling the current drawbacks of electric cars or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles is believed by some to be easier than developing a whole new hydrogen infrastructure that mimics the obsolete model of oil distribution. A plug-in hybrid transportation system would face the same thermodynamic hurdles as would a system of hydrogen vehicles relying on electrolysis for its molecular hydrogen. The current electric grid, which is dominated by fossil energy resources in the United States, has a fuel-to-power efficiency of roughly 40 percent. Both the plug-in hybrids and the electrolytic hydrogen system would be subject to these comparative inefficiencies.
United States President George W. Bush was optimistic that these problems could be overcome with research. In his 2003 State of the Union address, he announced the U.S. government's hydrogen fuel initiative,[35] which complements the President's existing FreedomCAR initiative for safe and cheap hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Critics charge that focus on the use of the hydrogen car is a dangerous detour from more readily available solutions to reducing the use of fossil fuels in vehicles. K.G. Duleep speculates that "a strong case exists for continuing fuel-efficiency improvements from conventional technology at relatively low cost."[30] Challenging perspectives to many such critics of hydrogen vehicles in particular and of a hydrogen economy in general were presented in the 2006 documentary, Who Killed the Electric Car?
President Bush's hydrogen car goal, in the opinion of some writers, is slipping away because "there are quicker, cleaner, safer and cheaper ways to reduce the tail-pipe emissions from cars and trucks that pollute the air and contribute to global warming." According to physicist and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph Romm, "A hydrogen car is one of the least efficient, most expensive ways to reduce greenhouse gases." Asked when hydrogen cars will be broadly available, Romm replied: "Not in our lifetime, and very possibly never."[30] As an article published in the March/April 2007 issue of Technology Review argued,
In the context of the overall energy economy, a car like the BMW Hydrogen 7 would probably produce far more carbon dioxide emissions than gasoline-powered cars available today. And changing this calculation would take multiple breakthroughs--which study after study has predicted will take decades, if they arrive at all. In fact, the Hydrogen 7 and its hydrogen-fuel-cell cousins are, in many ways, simply flashy distractions produced by automakers who should be taking stronger immediate action to reduce the greenhouse-gas emissions of their cars.[26]
The Wall Street Journal reported that "Top executives from General Motors Corp. and Toyota Motor Corp. Tuesday expressed doubts about the viability of hydrogen fuel cells for mass-market production in the near term and suggested their companies are now betting that electric cars will prove to be a better way to reduce fuel consumption and cut tailpipe emissions on a large scale."[36] In addition, Ballard Power Systems, a leading developer of hydrogen vehicle technology, pulled out of the Hydrogen vehicle business in late 2007. Research Capital analyst Jon Hykawy concluded that Ballard saw the industry going nowhere and said: "In my view, the hydrogen car was never alive. The problem was never could you build a fuel cell that would consume hydrogen, produce electricity, and fit in a car. The problem was always, can you make hydrogen fuel at a price point that makes any sense to anybody. And the answer to that to date has been no."[37]
The Economist magazine in September 2008, quoted Robert Zubrin, the author of Energy Victory, as saying: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel'".[38] The magazine noted the retirement of Ballard from the industry and the withdrawal of California from earlier goals: "In March [2008] the California Air Resources Board, an agency of California's state government and a bellwether for state governments across America, changed its requirement for the number of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) to be built and sold in California between 2012 and 2014. The revised mandate allows manufacturers to comply with the rules by building more battery-electric cars instead of fuel-cell vehicles."[38] The magazine also noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today's gasoline cars. On the other hand, if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles."[38]
Alternatives
- PHEVs
ICE-based hybrid cars can be plugged into the electric grid (Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, or PHEVs) and achieve much higher overall gas mileage and lower emissions than other hybrids. A 2006 article in Scientific American argues that PHEVs, rather than hydrogen vehicles, will soon become standard in the automobile industry.[39]
- EVs
Electric cars, such as the General Motors EV2 are typically more efficient than fuel cell-powered vehicles on a well-to-wheel basis. As Technology Review noted in June 2008, "Electric cars—and plug-in hybrid cars—have an enormous advantage over hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles in utilizing low-carbon electricity. That is because of the inherent inefficiency of the entire hydrogen fueling process, from generating the hydrogen with that electricity to transporting this diffuse gas long distances, getting the hydrogen in the car, and then running it through a fuel cell—all for the purpose of converting the hydrogen back into electricity to drive the same exact electric motor you'll find in an electric car.[40][41][42]
See also
References
- ^ Thames & Kosmos kit, Other educational materials, and many more demonstration car kits.
- ^ New Hydrogen-Powered Land Speed Record from Ford
- ^ GaleGroup.com info
- ^ Squatriglia, Chuck. "Hydrogen Cars Won't Make a Difference for 40 Years", Wired, May 12, 2008
- ^ Robertson, David (3 April 2008). "Boeing tests first hydrogen powered plane", Times Online.
- ^ 1807 Francois Isaac de Rivaz - internal combustion engine
- ^ "Fuel Cell Vehicles:Status 2007" (March 20, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-05-23.
- ^ "COE researchers engineer low-cost catalyst for hydrogen production"
- ^ Ballard "2006 achievements" press release
- ^ From the Ballard website
- ^ EERE Service life 5000 hours
- ^ Marine PEM fuel cell service life
- ^ L. Soler, J. Macanás, M. Muñoz, J. Casado. Journal of Power Sources 169 (2007) 144-149
- ^ F. Kreith (2004). "Fallacies of a Hydrogen Economy: A Critical Analysis of Hydrogen Production and Utilization". Journal of Energy Resources Technology 126: 249–257.
- ^ Ulf Bossel,Energy and the Hydrogen Economy
- ^ a b Schultz, M.G., Thomas Diehl, Guy P. Brasseur, and Werner Zittel. Air Pollution and Climate-Forcing Impacts of a Global Hydrogen Economy. Science 24 October 2003 302: 624-627[1]
- ^ US Energy Information Administration, "World Primary Energy Production by Source, 1970-2004"
- ^ Iceland's hydrogen buses zip toward oil-free economy accessed 17-July-2007
- ^ First Danish Hydrogen Energy Plant Is Operational accessed 17-July-2007
- ^ a b c [http://www.efcf.com/reports/E21.pdf EFCF paper on hydrogen efficiency
- ^ Henry, Jim (October 29, 2007). ""GM's Fuel-Cell Hedge"". BusinessWeek. Retrieved on 2008-05-09.
- ^ Gardner, Michael (November 22, 2004). ""Is 'hydrogen highway' the answer?"". San Diego Union-Tribune. Retrieved on 2008-05-09.
- ^ {{cites[[Media:[[Media:]]]] web | url= http://www.hydrogenforecast.com/ArticleDetails.php?articleID=250 | title= Shell Takes Flexible Approach to Fueling the Future | last= Stanley | first= Dean |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= | publisher= hydrogenforecast.com | accessdate= 2008-05-09}}
- ^ Romm, Joseph (2004). The Hype about Hydrogen, Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate. New York: Island Press. (ISBN 1-55963-703-X), Chapter 5
- ^ DOE codes and standards
- ^ a b c d From TechnologyReview.com "Hell and Hydrogen", March 2007
- ^ See Novelli, P.C., P.M. Lang, K.A. Masarie, D.F. Hurst, R. Myers, and J.W. Elkins. (1999). "Molecular Hydrogen in the troposphere: Global distribution and budget". J. Geophys. Res. 104(30): 427-30.
- ^ F. Kreith, "Fallacies of a Hydrogen Economy: A Critical Analysis of Hydrogen Production and Utilization" in Journal of Energy Resources Technology (2004), 126: 249–257.
- ^ Squatriglia, Chuck (May 12, 2008). ""Hydrogen Cars Won't Make a Difference for 40 Years"". Wired. CondéNet, Inc. Retrieved on 2008-05-13.
- ^ a b c Boyd, Robert S. (May 15, 2007). ""Hydrogen cars may be a long time coming"". McClatchy Newspapers. Retrieved on 2008-05-09.
- ^ Air Products and Chemicals website
- ^ Information from rps.psu.edu
- ^ Plug-in Hybrid Advocacy Group
- ^ Powerwatch - Domestic Energy use in the UK
- ^ Hydrogen.gov
- ^ GM, Edward Taylor and Mike Spector. "Toyota Doubtful on Fuel Cells' Mass Use", The Wall Street Journal, March 5, 2008
- ^ Article on Ballard's exit from the hydrogen vehicle industry
- ^ a b c Wrigglesworth, Phil. "The car of the perpetual future"' September 4, 2008, retrieved on September 15, 2008
- ^ Romm, Joseph and Prof. Andrew A. Frank "Hybrid Vehicles Gain Traction", Scientific American (April 2006)
- ^ "The Last Car You Would Ever Buy – Literally: Why we shouldn't get excited by the latest hydrogen cars", Technology Review, June 18, 2008
- ^ Energy efficiency comparison article
- ^ Information from cta.ornl.gov
External links
- California Fuel Cell Partnership
- Clean Energy Partnership
- C-Net - Hydrogen: More Polluting than Petroleum?
- Does a Hydrogen Economy Make Sense?
- EERE - FreedomCAR
- European Fuel Cell Forum
- Hydrogen Cars Now
- National Alternative Fuels Training Consortium - Technical Library
- Electric Mobility News
- Toronto Star article on hydrogen trains dated October 21, 2007
- NOVA - Video on Fuel Cell Cars (aired on PBS, July 26, 2005)
- Sandia National Laboratory - Hydrogen Engine
- Spirit of Ma'at - Video of an engine running on hydrogen from water
- UK Low Carbon and Fuel Cell Knowledge Transfer Network
- Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are a fraud
